Unknown
Japanese
Demon Chanting Buddhist Prayers (Oni Nenbutsu), 18th c. CE - 19th c. CE
wood with faint traces of pigment and gesso
71 1/4 x 30 1/2 x 20 1/2 in.
SBMA, Museum Purchase, Peggy and John Maximus Fund
2015.53abc
RESEARCH PAPER
The Japanese fascination with the supernatural is well documented in literature, drama, and the visual arts. No supernatural creature is more complex than the oni, or demon. Is the oni a demon from hell or an ardent Buddhist, a source of disease and death or good fortune? Or perhaps all of these at different times during Japan's history. The long and complicated history of the oni may well be the result of its evolution in and with Japanese culture.
The origins of the oni are somewhat in dispute by scholars. Some see the oni as having a Chinese origin, a personification of the yin/yang principle. Others see a relationship to the Buddhist religion and tradition, while others claim an indigenous Japanese creation. Both Japanese and Chinese legends reference Shōki, the demon queller and enemy of all oni.
Oni has an ancient history in Japan. Some scholars propose many types of kami, a designation for all divine spirits in Shinto. Those kami harmful to humans were considered evil spirits and universally feared. As early as the Nara Period (712 CE) the precursors of the oni were viewed as being sent from the underworld as avengers. Shinto saw the oni's nature as ambivalent. In Noh plays oni represented human passions.
The physical description of the oni appears more straightforward. Often of great size, the oni can be pink, red, blue, or yellow in color. Horns, bulging eyes, and a large mouth with teeth or fangs are physical features. The oni's fingers and toes are often three in number and claw like. The oni may carry a mallet or spiked rod and wear a loincloth mainly of tigerskin.
Oni were often the object of fear in the Heian Period (794-1185). Especially heinous was the oni's cannibalism and the ability to devour his victim 'in one gulp'. Additionally, oni had the power to transform and trick humans as in "The Tales of the Heike" (Heike Monogatari). Famous warriors were prevented from performing heroic acts of valor as in the Noh play 'Maple Leaf Viewing'. The oni became a threat to governmental authority and established order.
Thunder, lightning, and earthquakes were all natural forces associated with oni. The use of the oni to explain fearful aspects of nature had an extension in distrust and fear of those who were outside the narrow confines of the community. Oni became associated with 'the other', those who were physically, socially or geographically different. Much of what was unexplainable, mysterious, or seen as negative became associated with oni.
Buddhism arrived in Japan @550 CE from China via Korea. Although Japanese Buddhism grew out of Mahayana Buddhist tradition, it is very different from Buddhism which developed elsewhere in Asia. The portrayal of gods and forces venerated by the various sects and schools of Buddhism reflected the Japanese psyche, folklore, and indigenous Shinto beliefs.
Buddhist thought may have helped to 'soften' the image of the oni; hope of salvation for even the most deprived was offered by the Amida Buddha in the Pure Land Paradise. Noh was an especially effective means of spreading Buddhist philosophy. The leading character in 'Yamanba' (Zeami 1363-1443) states 'Good and evil are not two; right and wrong are the same'.
Good and evil were central during the spring festival Setsubun, also known as oni-harai. Beans were thrown in the cardinal directions with the cry 'In with fortune/ oni out'. Oni were, on occasion, associated with good fortune, although frequently by accident.
Through their long and complicated history, oni have frequently appeared in folk legends, drama, sculpture, netsuke, paintings and prints. The oni could appear as female as in the story of Yamauba (the mountain ogress), but the image was usually masculine. Sadly, the few female oni who appear have the unfortunate status of being seen as ugly or unsightly by their male lovers.
Depiction of oni reached the zenith of artistic representation during the Edo Period (1603-1868). The physical representation of the oni as well as his character were now the result of centuries of intermingling of Shinto and Buddhist thought as well as folk legends. Representations of the oni's behavior were plentiful on the Noh and Kabuki stages as well as in the more light hearted Kyogen interludes. Noh masks, netsuke, paintings and prints all utilized this fascinating subject for artistic exploration.
One area which became especially associated with the depiction of oni was Ōtsu. Ōtsu was a popular way station along the Tōkaidō Road which ran between Edo (Tokyo) and Kyoto. Ōtsu became a favorite stop for travelers and Ōtsu-e (pictures from Ōtsu) were sold from shops along the road. The folk images depicted in Ōtsu-e were often Buddhist inspired and presented in a naive style. Ōtsu-e were actively collected as souvenirs and Oni no Nembutsu was one of the most popular images.
The Santa Barbara Museum of Art's Oni no Nembutsu (Demon Chanting Buddhist Prayers) may reflect a de-demonized representation of the oni. The oni's 'life size' presentation is arresting. His animated face is fierce with a furrowed brow, tousled hair, flaring nostrils, and a large mouth with visible teeth/fangs. His now missing eyes might have bulged and holes in his hair reveal where horns would have protruded.
This oni does not wear animal skins or a loincloth, but now is wearing priestly robes. On his chest is a round gong which he might have struck with a now missing mallet. He is carrying a donor list for a temple. Red lacquer is visible on his face and body and traces of black pigment appear on his robe. The holes in the oni's chest suggest the attachment of a now missing umbrella and/or backpack.
It is noteworthy that the presentation of a 'trickster' in priest garments is a common trope in Edo period prints, paintings, and netsuke. Tanuki (raccoon-dog) disguised as a priest, sleeping on a Buddhist gong, or wrapped in lotus leaves is a theme used in netsuke to denote one who is evil at heart and hiding his true nature. Foxes were presented in woodblock prints, netsuke, and dramas wearing priest robes and holding rosaries. This irreverent depiction of priests may reveal the Edo period urban population's playful sense of humor or displeasure with priests who abuse their authority. Certainly Oni no Nembutsu is a far cry from the cannibal oni consuming humans 'at one gulp'. The question arises is this a devil in disguise or a truly repentant demon?
The question of the purpose of SBMA's Oni no Nembutsu is uncertain. Such a dramatic sculpture with detailed craftsmanship suggests importance. One theory is that the sculpture was created as a sub deity for a temple in the Ōtsu area and reflects the incorporation of folk legends into the Japanese Buddhist pantheon. Oni no Nembutsu appears to have left Japan @1900, a time when temples were in flux and treasures were being sold.
An alternative theory is that our oni may have functioned as an advertisement/shop sign for a print shop in Ōtsu. Utagawa Hiroshige in his "Fifty Three Stations of the Tōkaidō Road '' includes a print called Ōtsu. This woodblock print from about 1840 depicts an open air print shop with a large print of the ever popular Oni no Nembutsu character to encourage customers. How much more enticing a life size sculpture of the easily recognizable character would have been for the souvenir seeking traveler!
Noriko Reider, a scholar in oni 'culture', said it all in the title of her monograph "The Transformation of the Oni: From the Frightening and Diabolical to the Cute and Sexy". Although we may question the cute and sexy allusion, we cannot deny the appeal of the modern day oni, star of books, comic books, and films in modern day Japan. I will offer one personal affirmation of the modern oni - Onikoroshi, my favorite sake. The name Onikoroshi translates to 'demon chaser'.
Notes:
In Mahayana Buddhism, the men devouring Rakshasa is the equivalent entity as oni of Japanese Buddhism. According to Buddhist theology, any considerable evil or cruel man may become an oni. After death, their souls arrive in Naraka (Sanskrit), or the realm of Hell. The truest evil of them become oni and are given their mighty clubs and are instructed by the Yama (Enma), the king of Hell, to carry out punishment to the lesser souls of Hell. Oni crushes the bones of the sinners, flays their skins, and torments them with many other horrific acts. It is possible for the living to become oni. A man who is so evil has no hope for redemption becomes oni and terrorizes the living. The story of Shuten doji is popular folklore where a human (who was a monk in training) turned into an oni. https://yokai.com/shutendouji/
The word “oni” or "on" in Chinese means “ to hide or conceal”, which originally was used to signify any spirit or ghostlike entity.
Besides the general physical description given in the above paper, it is common for some oni’s to be given strange and unsettling traits to increase their scare factor- portraying them with an unnatural number of eyes (one) or fingers (three) or toes (three).
Depiction of oni wearing tiger skin loincloths and carrying iron club derives the famous expression “oni with an iron club” as a reference to something that is undefeatable or invincible. Among many images of oni even if it on some occasions is not wearing a tiger-skin loincloth, (maybe wearing a priest costume or soldier's costume or other), there are usually images of tiger skin lying around near the image of the oni to represent its original status.
Festivals like Setsubun are carried out even today in February (2,3 or 4) to drive out the ono- “oni wa soto! Fuku wa uchi!”, meaning “oni go out! Blessing Come in!”
In modern days, however, oni is viewed as a protective entity and the face, image, or figure of oni is sometimes used to drive off bad luck! As mentioned in the paper above, Oni's serious frightening images transformed or diminished into a more cute and funny existence!
Prepared for the Santa Barbara Museum of Art Docent Council by Gwen Baker, April, 2021
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Addis, Stephen, ed.
Japanese Ghosts and Demons
George Braziller, Inc. New York and Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas 1985
Frederic, Louis
Japanese Encyclopedia
The Belnap Press of Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England 2002
Goodall, Hollis
The Raymond and Frances Bushell Collection of Netsuke: A Legacy at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Art Media Resources, Inc. and The Los Angeles County Museum of Art 2003
Piggott, Julia
Japanese Mythology
The Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited Middlesex, England 1969
Reider, Noriko
Japanese Demon Lore: Oni from Ancient Times to the Present
Utah State University Press 2010
Reider, Noriko
Transformation of the Oni: From the Frightening and Diabolical to the Cute and Sexy
Web site: https://asianethnology.org/articles/525 https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a1450.pdf
Asian Folklore Studies 62 (1) 2003
Detail
SBMA CURATORIAL LABELS
Oni Nenbutsu or “Demon Chanting Buddhist Prayers”, is a character popularized by simple folk paintings called Ōtsu-e, or “Ōtsu pictures,” from the town of Ōtsu outside of Kyoto. They were sold as protective talismans to travelers and religious pilgrims passing through the town. Dressed as an itinerant monk with billowing sleeves, this praying oni carries a gong around his neck, a striker (now missing) in one hand and a donor registry in the other hand and seeks contributions for the upkeep of his temple. The playful contradiction of a demon masquerading as a Buddhist monk would have amused the townspeople in the increasingly secularized urban culture of the Edo period (1615-1868). Is this sculpture mocking man’s hypocritical nature, or marveling that even a demon can be converted to Buddhism? Toward the 19th century, “chanting oni” became the most recognizable of the Ōtsu-e folk characters who were represented in popular art and literature. Large sculptures of this figure are unusual, indicating that he may have originally been placed in a temple or used as a signpost for advertising Ōtsu-e.
- Asian Art Reopening, 2021